Part Two
Science
Chapter 5: The Method
Science must start with facts and end with facts, no matter what theoretical structure it builds in between.
It has a cyclic nature that may continue indefinitely.
Steps
1. Induction (hypothesis)
2. Deduction (analysis of the meaning of the theory)
3. Verification (see whether the facts observed are those that were predicted.)
From facts, we induct theories and through deduction we make predictions, which at the time will be verified through facts; starting all over again.
All facts are interpreted.
“A careful accumulation of facts is followed by the formation of ingenious theories. From these facts logical conclusions are drawn, which are verified one by one.”
It has a cyclic nature that may continue indefinitely.
Steps
1. Induction (hypothesis)
2. Deduction (analysis of the meaning of the theory)
3. Verification (see whether the facts observed are those that were predicted.)
From facts, we induct theories and through deduction we make predictions, which at the time will be verified through facts; starting all over again.
All facts are interpreted.
“A careful accumulation of facts is followed by the formation of ingenious theories. From these facts logical conclusions are drawn, which are verified one by one.”
Chapter 6: Credibility and Induction
Scientists assign probabilities to theories (although there’s no way of doing this precisely) they build arguments as to whether a theory is stronger than another.
Problem of explication: making an intuitive concept precise.
2 Principles
1. The new definition must be precise.
2. It must agree with the intuitive concept.
*Select the simplest precise concept satisfying all these conditions (intuition as a guide and usefulness).
Scientists agree that the more experiments confirm a theory, the more credible it is.
“The degree of credibility is an absolute standard to which our personal beliefs can be compared.”
Induction: the process of forming theories on the evidence of our observations. It carries us from the particular to the general.
“Induction tells us things we did not know before, whereas deduction only tells us things we knew already but did not realize that we knew.”
We cannot prove the truth of a given theory, but it can only non disconfirm it.
“I am convinced that the formation of possible theories will forever remain a job for the creative genius of the scientist. The choice may be aided by rules, but no such rules will ever replace original thinking.”
Given a theory, and given the results of our experiments, these will give a certain confirmation to the theory, which confirmation determines its credibility.
Scientific arguments stem from two sources:
1. Scientists may disagree as to the possible theories.
2. Arises when two scientists disagree as to which hypothesis is better confirmed by the given evidence.
If two or more theories have approximately the same credibility, we choose the simplest.
“Thus Science progresses by successive posits, resulting from induction, and elimination, resulting from deductions and verifications which together modify the credibility of the various hypotheses. We never reach certainty, but our theories become more and more probable all the time.”
“While our assumption must be taken on faith, we can point out that unless some such assumption were true human life would be impossible. If nature were designed so that plausible inductions invariably turn out to be wrong, the human race would be wiped out soon.”
Problem of explication: making an intuitive concept precise.
2 Principles
1. The new definition must be precise.
2. It must agree with the intuitive concept.
*Select the simplest precise concept satisfying all these conditions (intuition as a guide and usefulness).
Scientists agree that the more experiments confirm a theory, the more credible it is.
“The degree of credibility is an absolute standard to which our personal beliefs can be compared.”
Induction: the process of forming theories on the evidence of our observations. It carries us from the particular to the general.
“Induction tells us things we did not know before, whereas deduction only tells us things we knew already but did not realize that we knew.”
We cannot prove the truth of a given theory, but it can only non disconfirm it.
“I am convinced that the formation of possible theories will forever remain a job for the creative genius of the scientist. The choice may be aided by rules, but no such rules will ever replace original thinking.”
Given a theory, and given the results of our experiments, these will give a certain confirmation to the theory, which confirmation determines its credibility.
Scientific arguments stem from two sources:
1. Scientists may disagree as to the possible theories.
2. Arises when two scientists disagree as to which hypothesis is better confirmed by the given evidence.
If two or more theories have approximately the same credibility, we choose the simplest.
“Thus Science progresses by successive posits, resulting from induction, and elimination, resulting from deductions and verifications which together modify the credibility of the various hypotheses. We never reach certainty, but our theories become more and more probable all the time.”
“While our assumption must be taken on faith, we can point out that unless some such assumption were true human life would be impossible. If nature were designed so that plausible inductions invariably turn out to be wrong, the human race would be wiped out soon.”
Chapter 7: Concepts of Science
Types of Concepts
1. Observational Terms
2. Theoretical Terms
Operationalism
- They argue that all useful concepts must originate from experience as well (as Empiricists believe), and hence require operational definitions for all theoretical concepts.
“The formation of concepts and of theories using these go hand and hand, and both the concepts and the theories are modified with the progress of Science, the two processes being inseparable.”
If a theory has no precisely testable consequences, then it tells us nothing about experience.
A theory should make only true predictions and be as simple as possible.
We should adopt the attitude of judging theories and their interpretation (connection with facts) as a single body of knowledge.
Concepts are created arbitrarily.
“The justification of each concept is its usefulness in building simple theories.”
1. Observational Terms
2. Theoretical Terms
Operationalism
- They argue that all useful concepts must originate from experience as well (as Empiricists believe), and hence require operational definitions for all theoretical concepts.
“The formation of concepts and of theories using these go hand and hand, and both the concepts and the theories are modified with the progress of Science, the two processes being inseparable.”
If a theory has no precisely testable consequences, then it tells us nothing about experience.
A theory should make only true predictions and be as simple as possible.
We should adopt the attitude of judging theories and their interpretation (connection with facts) as a single body of knowledge.
Concepts are created arbitrarily.
“The justification of each concept is its usefulness in building simple theories.”