“The Origin of Species”
by Charles Darwin
Short Version (Selections from Darwin’s The Origin of Species: The Shape of the Argument)
Edited and annotated by Nicholas Maistrellis
Darwin’s Introduction
In his introduction, Darwin states the naturalistic view that species had not been independently created but had descended from other species. Then, he explains the main points he is going to write in his book. By order, they are: Variation under Domestication (variability of species in a state of nature), Struggle for Existence (talks about Malthus and natural selection), Natural Selection (Extinction of the less improved forms of life), Divergence of Character, laws of variation and of correlation of growth, the gravest difficulties on the theory (transitions, instinct, hybridism, geological record), geological succession of organic beings throughout time, through space, their classification or mutual affinities, and lastly a recapitulation.
Quoting Darwin on what he believes, “I am fully convinced that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species. Furthermore, I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main but not exclusive means of modification.”
Quoting Darwin on what he believes, “I am fully convinced that species are not immutable; but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct species, in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species. Furthermore, I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main but not exclusive means of modification.”
Chapter I. Variation Under Domestication
Editor’s introduction
The idea of selection
Darwin builds his argument by making the analogy between the works of domestication and the works of nature.
Varieties, sub-varieties, and breeds
He is referring to species so he would use these words as synonyms.
Variation
Three main questions: 1. The origin or cause; 2. Causes of increase or decrease of a population; and 3. Difference between heritable and nonheritable variations.
Could changes in the conditions of life be responsible for the existence of variation among organisms?
Darwin believes it does and it’s mainly because the whole reproductive system becomes unstable, leading to random changes.
Pigeons
He focuses his argument with the domesticated breed of pigeons and says they all descend from a wild species, the Columba livia, the rock dove.
His three main reasons for believing this are: 1. All domesticated pigeons share many characteristics with C. livia; 2. The offspring of crossed domesticated pigeons resemble more to the C. livia than to their parents; and 3. There are no other wild pigeons that are sufficiently like the rock dove so there are no other candidates.
Darwin’s text
“I am strongly inclined to suspect that the most frequent cause of variability may be attributed to the male and female reproductive elements having been affected prior to the act of conception.”
Besides the argument that the reproductive system may become stable under change in conditions, Darwin also expresses that “habit has a deciding influence”. This is because the effect of use, or that these species will change in order to best fit the needs of the environment and in domestication those needs are of the breeder, so he will modify a species accordingly to his needs.
Then, he goes to his argument on why all breeds of pigeons had descended from the Columba livia and states his reasons already mentioned above.
When talking about selection, he says that we cannot suppose that breeds were suddenly perfect and useful as we see them now, but the key is the process of accumulative selection.
Quoting Darwin again, “Over all these causes of Change I am convinced that the accumulative action of Selection, whether applied methodically and more quickly, or unconsciously and more slowly, but more efficiently, is by far the predominant Power.”
The idea of selection
Darwin builds his argument by making the analogy between the works of domestication and the works of nature.
Varieties, sub-varieties, and breeds
He is referring to species so he would use these words as synonyms.
Variation
Three main questions: 1. The origin or cause; 2. Causes of increase or decrease of a population; and 3. Difference between heritable and nonheritable variations.
Could changes in the conditions of life be responsible for the existence of variation among organisms?
Darwin believes it does and it’s mainly because the whole reproductive system becomes unstable, leading to random changes.
Pigeons
He focuses his argument with the domesticated breed of pigeons and says they all descend from a wild species, the Columba livia, the rock dove.
His three main reasons for believing this are: 1. All domesticated pigeons share many characteristics with C. livia; 2. The offspring of crossed domesticated pigeons resemble more to the C. livia than to their parents; and 3. There are no other wild pigeons that are sufficiently like the rock dove so there are no other candidates.
Darwin’s text
“I am strongly inclined to suspect that the most frequent cause of variability may be attributed to the male and female reproductive elements having been affected prior to the act of conception.”
Besides the argument that the reproductive system may become stable under change in conditions, Darwin also expresses that “habit has a deciding influence”. This is because the effect of use, or that these species will change in order to best fit the needs of the environment and in domestication those needs are of the breeder, so he will modify a species accordingly to his needs.
Then, he goes to his argument on why all breeds of pigeons had descended from the Columba livia and states his reasons already mentioned above.
When talking about selection, he says that we cannot suppose that breeds were suddenly perfect and useful as we see them now, but the key is the process of accumulative selection.
Quoting Darwin again, “Over all these causes of Change I am convinced that the accumulative action of Selection, whether applied methodically and more quickly, or unconsciously and more slowly, but more efficiently, is by far the predominant Power.”
Chapter III. Struggle For Existence
Editor’s introduction
The main question left in Chapter I is, is there enough variation in nature to support Darwin’s doctrine that continual modification of a geographical race of one species can result in a new species? Chapter II (Variation Under Nature) takes on with this question and argues that there is indeed sufficient variation in nature to make such transformations possible.
The main point in Chapter II and III are Variation in Nature and Struggle for Existence.
Variation in Nature
“Darwin concluded that nature exhibits a tremendous degree of variation – enough to generate all the races, varieties, and sub-varieties that trouble the lives of biologists.”
Struggle for Existence
This is the central concept in Darwin’s argument. He says that in order for natural selection to operate, the living world must have a certain competitive character. He refers to struggle for existence the mutual dependence of living things on one another. This is because, and I quote the editor, “the reason is the tendency of all organic being to reproduce at so high a rate that only a small fraction of them can survive – and therefore all forms of interdependence actually become forms of competition. This fact, when put together with the tendency of living things to vary, results in a process of selection that is natural rather than a reflection of conscious human purpose.”
Finally, there are two more consequences of this view. First, about the limits of our knowledge of nature and the conditions of a struggle for existence; and second, about what feelings arise from this point of view.
Darwin’s text
Darwin starts with asking, “How have all those exquisite adaptations of one part of the organization to another part, and to the conditions of life, and of one distinct organic being to another being, been perfected?” Then, he asserts that these variations are the consequence of the struggle for life.
When he refers to the Struggle for Existence, he is including the dependence of one being on another as well as the life of the individual and its success in leaving progeny.
He says that a struggle for existence inevitably follows because of the tendency of organic beings to increase. To support this argument, he uses the doctrine of Malthus and applies it to the whole animal and vegetative kingdom.
As another part of all plants and animals, in their life they undergo destruction, so we should not only take into account the rate or success in reproduction or laying eggs, seeds, or the youth, but of the rate that survives (makes up for) this process of destruction.
Another factor that influences this struggle is climate. We must not assume or attribute the whole effect of this struggle to climate because of the stage of destruction.
Then, Darwin adds two other factors. First, the introduction of a new specie to an established ecosystem; and second, whether this ecosystem is enclosed or not. In both cases, he states and exemplifies that they affect the struggle for existence of the other species involved.
“Not that in nature the relations can ever be as simple as this (referring to the previous example of the points above). Battle within battle must ever be recurring with varying success; and yet in the long-run the forces are so nicely balanced, that the face of nature remains uniform for long periods of time, though assuredly the merest trifle would often give the victory to one organic being over another. Nevertheless so profound is our ignorance, and so high our presumption, that we marvel when we hear of the extinction of an organic being; and as we do not see the cause, we invoke cataclysms to desolate the world, or invent laws on the duration of the forms of life!”
One more point in his argument is that he shows how plants and animals are bound together by a web of complex relations, and gives the example of the Lobelia fulgens and its relation with insects and birds. In this example, he also makes a remark on how a small change or the change of a specie in general (increase, decrease, or extinction) in one region would affect the species of other regions apparently not connected. This reminded me the butterfly effect in the sense of how a small change can unleash big changes somewhere else throughout time.
Darwin’s final recapitulation,
“All that we can do, is to keep steadily in mind that each organic being is striving to increase at a geometrical ration; that each at some period of its life, during some season of the year, during each generation or at intervals, has to struggle for life, and to suffer great destruction. When we reflect on this struggle, we may console ourselves with the full belief, that the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy survive and multiply.”
The main question left in Chapter I is, is there enough variation in nature to support Darwin’s doctrine that continual modification of a geographical race of one species can result in a new species? Chapter II (Variation Under Nature) takes on with this question and argues that there is indeed sufficient variation in nature to make such transformations possible.
The main point in Chapter II and III are Variation in Nature and Struggle for Existence.
Variation in Nature
“Darwin concluded that nature exhibits a tremendous degree of variation – enough to generate all the races, varieties, and sub-varieties that trouble the lives of biologists.”
Struggle for Existence
This is the central concept in Darwin’s argument. He says that in order for natural selection to operate, the living world must have a certain competitive character. He refers to struggle for existence the mutual dependence of living things on one another. This is because, and I quote the editor, “the reason is the tendency of all organic being to reproduce at so high a rate that only a small fraction of them can survive – and therefore all forms of interdependence actually become forms of competition. This fact, when put together with the tendency of living things to vary, results in a process of selection that is natural rather than a reflection of conscious human purpose.”
Finally, there are two more consequences of this view. First, about the limits of our knowledge of nature and the conditions of a struggle for existence; and second, about what feelings arise from this point of view.
Darwin’s text
Darwin starts with asking, “How have all those exquisite adaptations of one part of the organization to another part, and to the conditions of life, and of one distinct organic being to another being, been perfected?” Then, he asserts that these variations are the consequence of the struggle for life.
When he refers to the Struggle for Existence, he is including the dependence of one being on another as well as the life of the individual and its success in leaving progeny.
He says that a struggle for existence inevitably follows because of the tendency of organic beings to increase. To support this argument, he uses the doctrine of Malthus and applies it to the whole animal and vegetative kingdom.
As another part of all plants and animals, in their life they undergo destruction, so we should not only take into account the rate or success in reproduction or laying eggs, seeds, or the youth, but of the rate that survives (makes up for) this process of destruction.
Another factor that influences this struggle is climate. We must not assume or attribute the whole effect of this struggle to climate because of the stage of destruction.
Then, Darwin adds two other factors. First, the introduction of a new specie to an established ecosystem; and second, whether this ecosystem is enclosed or not. In both cases, he states and exemplifies that they affect the struggle for existence of the other species involved.
“Not that in nature the relations can ever be as simple as this (referring to the previous example of the points above). Battle within battle must ever be recurring with varying success; and yet in the long-run the forces are so nicely balanced, that the face of nature remains uniform for long periods of time, though assuredly the merest trifle would often give the victory to one organic being over another. Nevertheless so profound is our ignorance, and so high our presumption, that we marvel when we hear of the extinction of an organic being; and as we do not see the cause, we invoke cataclysms to desolate the world, or invent laws on the duration of the forms of life!”
One more point in his argument is that he shows how plants and animals are bound together by a web of complex relations, and gives the example of the Lobelia fulgens and its relation with insects and birds. In this example, he also makes a remark on how a small change or the change of a specie in general (increase, decrease, or extinction) in one region would affect the species of other regions apparently not connected. This reminded me the butterfly effect in the sense of how a small change can unleash big changes somewhere else throughout time.
Darwin’s final recapitulation,
“All that we can do, is to keep steadily in mind that each organic being is striving to increase at a geometrical ration; that each at some period of its life, during some season of the year, during each generation or at intervals, has to struggle for life, and to suffer great destruction. When we reflect on this struggle, we may console ourselves with the full belief, that the war of nature is not incessant, that no fear is felt, that death is generally prompt, and that the vigorous, the healthy, and the happy survive and multiply.”